The Novel Of Kill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee - 1536 Words

1. The title of the novel is To Kill a Mockingbird. 2. The author of the novel is Harper Lee. 3. The genre of the novel is realistic fiction. 4. The book is told from the first person point of view. 5. To Kill a Mockingbird is set in Maycomb County which is located in Alabama. The events occur during the 1930’s during the early years of the Great Depression. A. The author uses time and place very effectively. However, time seems to slow during the course of the story. The seasons meld into another and one can forget that the novel spans the events of three years. The people of Maycomb do not seem to take much interest in the happenings outside of their own little world, which makes it difficult to put the events into perspective. B.†¦show more content†¦Atticus is appointed by Judge Taylor to represent Tom Robinson in a local trial. Robinson is accused of sexually harassing Mayella Ewell. Although the odds are not in his favor, he does his best to make sure that the trial is fair. During the trial, Atticus soon points out that Mayella and her father, Bob, are lying. It was actually Bob Ewell who beat Mayella, but due to the jury’s decision, Tom Robinson was sentenced to prison. Tom is shot and killed while escaping prison which causes Jem to question the unfairness of it all. Bob Ewell feels insulted by the happenings of the trial and vows to get revenge on Atticus. He eventually attacks Scout and Jem on their way home on Halloween from their school pageant. Boo Radley saves the children and carries them home. Afterwards, it is decided that Bob Ewell simply fell on his own knife and Scout offers to walk Boo home. 7. Opening Scene A. The opening scene starts at the ending. It starts where the very last scene finishes. Jem has broken his arm and argues with Scout over the source of problems that rose up over the past few years. Scout also gives a brief history on her family and how they came to be in Maycomb. B. The importance of the opening scene is that it introduces the characters and gives the impression that Scout is recalling the events that happened. It introduces the setting of

Social Networking and the End of True Friendship Essay

â€Å"A wealth of content creates a poverty of attention.† - Nobel Laureate Herbert Simon - Facebook now has over 1.3 billion monthly active users (Edwards, 2014). When we consider such a colossal volume of information being pumped continuously into cyberspace, social media’s pervasive stranglehold on our society becomes readily apparent. In the past decade we have opened more communication channels than our parents ever thought possible. The advent of smartphones has even eliminated the necessity of a computer screen, putting the power to network across the globe literally in the palms of our hands. We are able to see the positive impacts of the social media movement every day in the speed at which information is disseminated and the†¦show more content†¦While it might seem that our online social networks are allowing us to have more friends than ever before, it is more likely that we are reaching our full potential of recognizing one another. In fact, increasing the size of our social network appears to produce no proportional increase in our capacity for meaningful relationship. Instead we operate on a â€Å"one in, one out† psychological system where every new member of the 150 Club requires another to be jettisoned (Devlin). And so what of the â€Å"fluff people,† whose content we are exposed to every time we log in to Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram? How are we affected by maintaining these casual, emotionally distant relationships over the Internet? The impacts may be worse than we would care to imagine. A recent study indicated 354 Facebook friends to be the average maximum number an individual can acquire before becoming less content with his or her own life (Watkins). Why? Because very rarely are our social media personas reflective of our real-life realities. Perhaps it is because we wish to spare others the pain and drama of our everyday lives; perhaps it is because we revel in the opportunity social media offers for self-promotion. Regardless, to a certain extent weShow MoreRelatedFacebook: The End of Friendship As We Know It Essay966 Words   |  4 PagesFacebook: Its The End of Friendship As We Know It (and I feel fine) Manjoo’s essay Is Facebook a Fad provides extensive insight into various social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter and MySpace. Based on statistics derived from Manjoo’s essay, we get to know that Facebook has over one billion active users and one half of them log into their accounts each day (Manjoo p.223). William Deresiewicz also eludes to this in his essay Faux Friendship. As a result of so many people optingRead MoreHow Social Media Has On Our Society1010 Words   |  5 PagesIn â€Å"Faux Friendship,† associate professor William Deresiewics discusses the affect that social media has on our society. 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Sylvia Plath vs Ted Hughes Free Essays

Sylvia Plath’s poem, ‘Whiteness I Remember’, and Ted Hughes’s poem, ‘Sam’, are two poems which describe an experience of Plath’s when she was a student at Cambridge. She was out on her first ride when the horse she had hired the normally-placid Sam, bolted. Although Ted Hughes’s is describing the experience he uses insinuations throughout the poem to let out his perception of his marriage with Sylvia Plath, hence infuriating, the conflict in perspective between the two poems. We will write a custom essay sample on Sylvia Plath vs Ted Hughes or any similar topic only for you Order Now The ideas of ‘conflicting perspective’ suggest that the composers of the texts present an even-handed, unbiased attitude to the events, personalities or situations represented. Conflicting perspectives explore the subjective truth of the individual, which are shaped by the construction of a text by a biased composer. Each person’s version of the truth in events, personalities and situations differs, by viewing separate perspectives an understanding of the motives and purpose of the composer is formed. Sam’ is Hughes retrospective interpretation of an event in Plath’s life before she met him and which she had represented in the poem ‘Whiteness I remember’. Hughes’ poem itself contains what can be interpreted as conflicting perspectives of her personality and when read in conjunction with Whiteness I remember reveals interesting similarities and differences. Hughes seems to accept Plath’s account of the event ‘I can liv e Your incredulity, your certainty that this was it’ and he does adhere closely to her description of her experiences during the horse’s headlong flight to the stable. However, the repetition of ‘You lost your stirrups’, ‘You lost your reins, you lost your seat’, combine to depict Plath as a terrified victim unable to control or take responsibility for the consequences of her own actions. In contrast Plath’s poem suggests she was exhilarated by the speed and danger and identified with what she represents as the horses’ rebellion against the ‘humdrum’ of suburbia. In contrast Hughes accuses her of glamorising her loss of control. ‘It was grab his neck and adore him or free fall’. Once again the reader is arguably left with the impression that Hughes is still identifying with Sam and suggesting there are parallels between her relationship with him and the horse. As the stanza continues Hughes builds the momentum and pace with a series of commas as punctuation and an enjambment. The choice of verb in ‘You slewed under his neck, an upside down jockey with nothing between you and the cataract of macadam’ creates an image of Plath unable to maintain a balance and in imminent danger of being smashed into the road by the horses hooves at high speed. The alliteration and the metaphor of the ‘horribly hard swift river’ in full flood combine with the’ propeller terror of his front legs’ and the onomatopoeia of ‘clangour of the iron shoes’ to transform the horse into an engine of destruction. How to cite Sylvia Plath vs Ted Hughes, Papers

The Attitudes of Martin Luther and John Calvin Toward Political Authority and Social Order free essay sample

The Protestant Reformation was initiated by the Augustinian monk Martin Luther, who developed different views concerning how society should be run and how government should be adhered; which were in opposition to his third successor, the French lawyer, John Calvin. The Protestant Reformation was a movement which emerged in the 16th century as a series of attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church in Western Europe. Although politically Martin Luther wanted the current monarchy to remain as the form of government, socially he preferred nobility over the peasants but sympathized with them and wanted social order to remain with the same division of lower and upper classes. On the contrary, John Calvin believed that the political authority should be changed from monarchy to the reformed church and socially wished for a social revolution where Christians were able to rule and have authority. Although, Luther worked in the existing political framework, Calvin on the other hand wanted to overpower the existing government. We will write a custom essay sample on The Attitudes of Martin Luther and John Calvin Toward Political Authority and Social Order or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Martin Luther wanted monarchy to remain as the form of government. This is so, because he needed the support from the Prince of the Holy Roman Empire in order to survive since the Emperor, Charles V, condemned him with heresy. Although Luther advocated religious reform, like Calvin; he believed that people should obey their political authorities. Yet, he encouraged German princes to reform the Church in their states and promoted the ideal that the Church was not subject to the pope’s interpretation. Unlike Luther, John Calvin was significantly radical and believed that the political authority should be changed from monarchy to the reformed church. Calvin developed the concept of predestination in which he believed that Calvinists were the chosen people of God, the elect, and the favored by God. In contrast to Luther, he believed church and city should combine to enforce Christian behavior. Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva where religious leaders, called the Prebysters, dominated the city’s government and had the power to impose harsh penalties for those who did not follow God’s will. While Luther socially sided with nobility, John Calvin wished for a social revolution. Unlike Calvin, Luther preferred nobility over the peasants but sympathized with them. He was a conservative on social and economic issues. He opposed the peasants and supported the princes in their suppression of the revolt in 1524. Because Luther believed that the church consisted of a â€Å"priesthood of ll believers† he did not believe in a hierarchical structure. Overall, Luther believed the social order should remain as it was because the reformation was a process from within the person. Contrary to Luther’s belief, John Calvin wished for a social revolution. Calvin wanted to re-order and mold society according to God’s plans in which men and women should a ct externally as they believe. Like Luther, Calvin ended both monasticism and the celibacy of the clergy. Contrary to Luther, Calvin emphasized a puritanical approach to life, which involved a rejection of worldly pleasures.

The Merchant of Venice Act One Scenes 1 2 Essay Example

The Merchant of Venice Act One Scenes 1 2 Paper 1) The phrase a want-wit means he who wants knowledge. This would come back to the earlier phrase said by Antonio In sooth I know not why I am so sad. He then says that what makes him sad he is to learn and in that says that sadness makes him he who wants knowledge. b) When answering the question above, I made sure that I found out what the original meaning of wit was, as I happened to read this question, giving me a good suspicion that wit did have a different meaning in the time of Shakepeare. c) In the light of point (b), I looked through the meanings of wit in an old dictionary, which lists the meanings of words in the order of the time that they had that particular meaning (oldest first). I would rather have done that than let myself succumb to guesswork and get the answer wrong. d) The quotation starts in elipses () because they mean that text precedes the text shown if looked at in its original source. We will write a custom essay sample on The Merchant of Venice Act One Scenes 1 2 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Merchant of Venice Act One Scenes 1 2 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Merchant of Venice Act One Scenes 1 2 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer e) That starts a new line because the preceding line has run out of its ten-syllable limit. Because the text is written in verse, each line is restricted to ten syllables, (as the play could then be rendered truly false in the eyes of the church), and because the bit of text before contains ten syllables, that must appear on a new line. f) That receives a capital T, even though it is not the start of a new sentence, because the start of a new line when it is in verse means that the first word receives a capital first letter as it is seen as a different segment of text. g) You have put the quotation in the middle of the page and surrounded it with a blank line above and below because it saves loosing the important quote in the midst of the text. Consequently, it also makes the reader want to read it and absorb it more because they can see it better. h) The meaning of the stuff in the brackets at the end of the quotation is that the quotation is lines 6 through to 7 in act one, scene one (although it doesnt directly state the act and the scene as it is aforementioned at the top of the page). 2) I believe that Shakespeare has begun the play with the lament of Antonio because it gives the audience a way to know about the fact that Antonio has argosies bound for various destinations, which becomes important later in the play. It puts the audience in a direct position with the characters as the conversation starts in the middle, but it is also a good way to get the audience initially intrigued. It keeps the audience watching, a bit like those crazy Midsommer Murders sub-plots. 3) Or, as it were, the pageants of the sea, Do overpeer the petty traffickers, That curtsy to them, do them reverence, As they fly by them with their woven wings. (l.i.11-14) b) I think that the purpose in Salarino using such an over-the-top image is to cheer Antonio up. He also says that the ships have portly sails, or as you so eloquently put it fat bastard sails, giving Antonio something to laugh about. (He has, after all, already stated that he is sad.) c) When quoting the lines asked in (a) I purposely looked at how you had quoted the lines at the top of the page as imitation is a good way of learning. I wanted to be sure of getting the way of quoting right, I automatically presumed that you were right because you are the teacher, and so copied your way of doing things in hope to please. In terms of moral beliefs, I do not believe that morality exists, and that everything is based on the views of life. Morality is an elaboration on the ways to prevent a species from going extinct (in basic terms). 4) Antonio reacts to Salanios comment, Why then, you are in love, by saying Fie, fie! as in Good Lord No! He seems to try and change the subject in his saying. Maybe he is, but it is more likely a what a silly statement statement. 5) In lines 82-83, Gratiano begins his speech, Let me play the fool: With mirth and laughter let old wrinkles come From this, you can see that he is about to burst into useless speech when he has no need. His first statement would have, in reality, been plenty. He then goes on to say, There are a sort of men whose visages Do cream and mantle like a standing pond, And do a wilful stillness entertain, With purpose to be dressd in an opinion Of wisdom, gravity, profound conceit, As who should say I am Sir Oracle, And when I ope my lips let no dog bark! This has no direct link to what he started off with, but in this Gratiano states that there are pompous arses, and starts to get philosophical, thus turning his original statement around. Maybe he isnt as full of an infinite deal of nothing as he seems. However, in saying all of that, he goes on and on, turning himself into a pompous arse. Afterwards he says, Ill tell thee more of this another time: But fish not, with this melancholy bait, For this fool gudgeon He has now totally changed subject, not refer ring to anything he had previously. He has also changed the mood of the conversation by referring to melancholy bait. The subject at the start was happiness! 6) a) In scene 1, Antonios objectives are to play on his sadness, find out what ails him and to try and cheer himself up. He also must play on his deeds to Bassanio. He does not appear in scene 2. b) In scene 1, Bassanios objective is to try and squeeze money out of Antonio. I think it should be important that Bassanio should always seem to be trying to squeeze money out of people as it is part of his character. Bassanio does not appear in scene 2. c) In scene 2, Portias objective should be to try and find a suitor, even though she knows it is hopeless to find a decent one. She should always have a feeling of necessity about her when playing the scene, but also a clear sense of hopefulness. She does not appear in scene 1. 7) You can tell that Bassanio is a sleaze by this section when he is trying to get money out of Antonio: In my school-days, when I had lost one shaft, I shot his fellow of the self-same flight The self-same way with more advised watch, To find the other forth, and by adventuring both I oft found both: He tries to use elaborate stories to get his money, which he calls a proof. He also, when speaking of her to Antonio, veers off the path of compliment towards her beauty and goes towards her financial state, saying that she is richly left, and then having to cover up for it by saying to Antonio that she is fair, but even that word is ambiguous, showing us Antonios two-faced nature. His last comparison, that Portia is like the golden fleece, compares her to treasure, and further implies that he only wants her for her money. 8) The important plot point established at lines 176-179 is that Antonio does not have the money to pay Bassanio as all his money is invested in his ships, and hints that he will have to go somewhere else for it. Thou knowst that all my fortunes are at sea; Neither have I money nor commodity To raise a present sum: therefore go forth; Try what my credit can in Venice do: Hmmm 9) Scene 2 is written, for the first part, in prose, which means that it is written in speech form, which is how someone from this time period would construct a play script normally. Scene 1 is written in verse, which is how play scripts had to be written to prove that they were false to the church, although it doesnt rhyme. 10) The marriage conditions laid down in Portias fathers will were that she must get a husband or lose the inheritance, and that she cannot chose her husband herself she must rely on three caskets of gold, silver, and lead as a form of lottery. Whoever picks the right casket gets to marry Portia. 11) Portia has a friendly relationship with Nerissa, even though Portia is of a grater status than her. Their friendship and trust is clearly noticeable when Portia asks Nerissa to put a deep glass of rhenish wine on the contrary casket, to make sure that the German suitor choses the wrong one and does not marry her. This also gives Nerissa tremendous power that clearly contradicts her status. The way the two characters talk to each other, Portia does not look down upon Nerissa, they are very realistic, and the fact that the text is written in prose further emphasizes the realism, yet at the very end, to switch status/society back to its original place, Nerissa comments that her eyes are foolish. The use of this word sets the truth that she is a servant and Nerissa is the mistress. 12) In terms of stereotypes, there is the Frenchman who has all the good stuff but has too many characteristics (and is too noble for his own good), an Englishman who is ignorant to foreign languages and who is a slave of fashion, picking up designs from around the world, a Scotsman who does nothing but fight, and a drunk German. This shows that the characteristics of people from different countries have changed very little, if at all, from Shakespeares time, and shows that Shakespeare has much relevance in the modern world. As for the fact that it is a long question, I think that it is not. It only appears long as the individual statements are not separated by punctuation, making the eye group them, making it seem longer. 13) 14) In terms of separating Jaffa Cakes and Hob-Nobs as races of biscuits and cakes, and asking me to judge which one is better, I am certainly not above being racist, but so I dont offend any do-gooders I do not think I should judge. However, in terms of biscuits, I certainly think that Jaffa Cakes should win as they are much more refreshing. Also, If they were struck, only the chocolate coating would crack as they are in themselves quite spongy. A Hob-Nob would just crumble. (But in a war, could they throw dead Hob-Nob at the enemy?)

Psycho essays

Psycho essays I dont care about the subject matter, I dont care about the acting, but I do care about the pieces of film and the photography and all the technical ingredients that makes the audience scream. (Alfred Hitchcock). Show How Hitchcock Achieves This In The Shower Scene Of Psycho Alfred Hitchcock, known across the globe for his famously shocking and revolutionary films. Hitchcock had an exceptional talent to make a piece of film, add some techniques and make it the most shocking piece of film in its time. In particular Psycho was an incredibly outrageous film, which with all of its techniques blended together, working like a well-oiled machine, really did make the audience scream. Hitchcock has an intriguing way of bringing the audience through the story line to the Bates Motel. Hitchcock splits the narrative into two plot lines; the first is almost just a means of getting the audience to the action. The second plot line crushes the audiences expectations and leaves them feeling a sense of unknown, and insecurity. The first plot line runs through Marion stealing the money, this creates the audience do not immediately assume Marion is not innocent, and the audience do not empathise with her. She then escapes with the money and after the escape her sister calls a private detective and the search for Marion begins. Marions sisters speech and actions make out that Marion is innocent and that she is running away for her safety, not fleeing from the law. When Marion reaches Bates motel the second plot line kicks in, with Marion, now with the audience empathising with her, meeting the strange Norman Bates. During Marions conversations and scenes with Norman the audience get more and more attached to him. But as the audience learns this is just one of Hitchcocks many twists as he attaches the audience to one character, but then shifts the atten...

Domestic Violence Against Women in Malaysia Essay

Domestic Violence Against Women in Malaysia - Essay Example A domestic partner can be a married partner or unmarried partner staying together. After the introduction, the statement of the problem related to domestic violence is provided along with the research and scope of the study. In the second chapter, the Historical background of Malaysia has been mentioned. This section would help to understand the culture and values that exist in the country. Furthermore, it will allow the readers to gain an interest about the topic after knowing the historical values of the country. In this section different issue related to Malaysian society has also been discussed. Domestic Violence in Malaysia has been discussed in this section along with the regulations and support system that protect women from the abuses. In the third chapter some regulations that protect the women have been discussed thoroughly. In the fourth chapter the gaps in the regulations have been mentioned. The fourth chapter provides information about the limitations of the laws and regulations that have been incorporated in Malaysia against domestic violence. The fifth chapter is very important because it provides the literature review of the essay. In the fifth chapter the rights and positions of the Muslim women residing in Malaysia has been discussed. This section also mentions about the preaching of Islamic culture and information about the Sharia Law. In this chapter some theories about the causes of domestic violence has been provided along with the conceptual framework of domestic violence in Malaysia. The gaps in the literature has also been mentioned in the section due to which the issues related to domestic violence in Malaysia has not been in regular discussion by other nations. The sixth chapter provides inform ation about the different type of disturbances and injuries that females of Malaysia had to experience. Finally, some recommendations have been provided in the

Marxism and the Financial Crisis in China Essay

Marxism and the Financial Crisis in China - Essay Example Although china is a communist nation, it can be said that there are no real communists in the country. The Chinese communist party consists of about 70 million members, yet there are a few or no devoted Marxists to be found in the country. According to Gross, "The elites in China are more interested in capitalism as it is believed to result in better outcomes. They believe that the evolvement of capitalism in a state-controlled economy, under the supervision of the Communist Party will have great results." (Gross, Daniel. 2009) The Chinese communist party was founded in 1921, in Shanghai. Even 10 years before the party was formed, there were student uprisings concerning communism. The party was founded by two Beijing University Professors; Chen Duxin and Li Dazhao. One of Li's students was Mao Zedong. These people believed in communism and Marxism-Leninism. There became two parties trying to rule the country; the Communist Party of China and the Nationalist government of China. In 19 23 the Communists and the Nationalists joined forces to beat the warlords. But the Nationalist turned on the Communists and when they got to Shanghai, and they decided to clear out the communists In China, the communist party has shown flexibility when implementing policies. It is important to note that Karl Marx and his philosophy is very much respected and referenced by the party members. His wisdom has always been appreciated and is never forgotten. But another important thing to note is that Mr. Marx's ideas are very old and do not fit in today's era of science and technology, because even though this ideology seems appropriate, it would put a restraint on professionalism. (Jochnowitz) The pure Marxist ideology is a political philosophy, economic and sociological worldview with a basis on the materialist interpretation of history, a social change theory, a Marxist analysis of capitalism, and an atheist view of the liberation of humans. The major primary aspects this ideology, as put forward by Friedrich Engels and Karl are The dialectical and materialist concept of history, an advocacy of proletarian revolution, and a critique of capitalism In today's competitively developing world, China cannot afford to stay backward by adopting a pure Marxist ideology. Therefore it must adopt policies and processes that promote monetary growth and development. It is true that there is a wide gap between the rich and the poor in the country. But this does not mean that adopting Marxism and such policies would help in development. The ultimate objective is, undoubtedly, the prosperity of the entire nation, but the belief is that national prosperity could only be achieved through capitalism. (Gross, Daniel. 2009) The pure Marxist ideology has been rejected through out the world. The main reason for this is that states which adopted this system tended to remain backward as the rest of the world developed and progressed. From Marx's and Engel's perspetive, "the ideal society was one in which the principle of the common ownership of wealth and advocates the values of community, cooperation, equality and the satisfaction of need." (Heywood 1998:328) Communism also encompasses wider ideologies based on Marxist principles, such as socialism In the early to mid 1980s, there was a only a hint of Communism left in the economic system

The movie battle in seattle compared to realbattleinseattle.org Essay

The movie battle in seattle compared to realbattleinseattle.org - Essay Example For example, the movie illustrates the world trade organization WTO protest as acts of hooliganism where protesters looted and burned shops. This was not the actual case. Were it not for the brutal force that met the protest by the Seattle police initially, the organizers of the protest after the world trade organization (WTO) conference had planned for a peaceful demonstration insisting that no violence was to be used, (Reitan 89). The Hollywood version of the protest after the world trade organization (WTO) conference is very biased. The Film describes the film illustrates the Events that took place in the city of Seattle in 20th February 1999. It blames the protesters for the outcome of the violence whereas the source of the violence during the protest was police brutality. The film also depicts that the cause of the protest was political while the actual truth is that the protest was protesting against corporate globalization, (WTO people’s history). Corporate Globalizatio n When bureaucratic corporations dominate the economy in hierarchically, it is considered corporate globalization. This is where big corporations and business establishments take control of decisions that affect the economy as a group. They do this to ensure that business keeps flowing on their side hence making very huge profits. The protest that happened in Seattle on November 30th 1999 aimed at fighting this control that big corporations and business institutions have on matters that affect the economy (Chapman 33). There have been other protests such as the protest after the world trade organization (WTO) conference that protests this control of the economy by bureaucratic corporations. Such protests include, Greek protests of May 2010, Global May Day protests in 2006, June 26, 2003 Thessalonika Clashes in Greece, during EU Summit, in 2001 in Quebec City in Canada, during FTAA, in Los Angeles, USA August 11, 2000 Clashes, at the Democratic National Convention and worldwide Carni val against Capitalism in 1999 (Chapman 45). All theses protests were held to demonstrate against the evil of corporate globalization, which is also referred to as corporate capitalism, (Chapman 45). One of the agendas of these protests it spread awareness on the effects that corporate globalization have on the world. These protests have helped a lot because after each protest people know what is happening in the economy of the world because they are received with a lot of press and publicity. These protests have been effective since policies that affect the world’s economy are being determined differently. This means that governments do their own research in order to assist them in making good economic decisions rather than relying on what huge corporations and business organizations advice on. Another effect that these protests have had is that decisions about the economy are not left to countries that dominate the world economy such as the United States of America (USA). N owadays, almost all countries are consulted when it comes to make such decisions. In my opinion, decisions about the world economies should not be left to big corporations and business institutions. However, countries that experience the best economies in the world should be given a lot of attention when it comes to theses decisions. This is because theses countries have advanced their economies to high levels hence, countries with weak economies can learn a lot from them. However, these countries

The Transatlantic Tunnel Of Transport Systems Information Technology Essay

The Transatlantic Tunnel Of Transport Systems Information Technology Essay For quite some time since the Industrial Revolution, sustainable transport has almost been synonymous with train form of transport. Several modifications have taken place on the first steam engine design to more energy and speed efficient models. With advancement in technology in this information and technology age, even more fascinating models are likely to be designed to keep up with the pace of lifestyle change. Critical limitations that hinder train transport systems will be addressed such as the geographical intricacies [1]. The Transatlantic Tunnel proposal dares to defy the ocean waters and the huge distance from America to Europe by bringing these two world business centers closer via a train. Top speed underwater tunnel across the Atlantic Ocean could be nearer to reality than many people would have thought. Engineering designers initially estimated that by the turn of the 21st Century, trains moving at around 5000 miles per hour could make the journey from America to Europe in less than an hour. Even though this future engineering project seems interesting, several issues need to be taken into consideration like the design that will pass the test of time across the treacherous ocean to the huge funding demand. Regardless of the factors standing in the way of the project, it remains a brilliant engineering project of this age. On the other hand, resilience could be propelled by the invaluable benefits that the project is likely to present to the world such that the project sees the light of the century. According to the documentary video Extreme Engineering, the possibility of this unbelievable project is not out of reach of reality amid modern technology. Challenged by t he success of the English Channel linking England with France, such ideas of completing the project cannot be unimaginable in this technological age. These are among the issues that this study explores, in an attempt to unravel this massive project. 1.2 The Main Text 1.2.1 Background Information. Nowadays, improvement of transport takes on a commercial perspective. Business had to be facilitated across nations in an efficient manner before using finer railway networks. In a more advanced version of the same networking, railway transport will now be explored for possibilities of connecting continents that are hundreds of miles apart. Building on past experience of connecting countries separated by seas and oceans, it is increasingly becoming a debate topic in engineering scenes on how continents can be linked by train for efficient transport. Similar ideas were illustrated in art and plays to demonstrate the relevance of the creation of such work [2]. 1.2.2 History and Theory. Jules Verne is the first visionary to suggest the Transatlantic Tunnel idea in 1895. The initial design could probably have been prompted by Vernes long and unpleasant sailing experiences [3]. Since there are several art works that used a fictional model of the Transatlantic Tunnel, its actualization was not taken seriously until real engineering work was brought on board. Suggestions have been made on several areas where the train and the tunnel system would need to overcome the most pressing missing links. Theories and ideas of a tunnel linking the said continents have been persistent and the best postulations were demonstrated in a film by the name Transatlantic Tunnel which was made in 1935 [4]. In the movie, a problematic development of the project featured an illustration of the difficulties that the project faces at the current stage. Most of the early positions held on the same topic were based on a fictional tunnel that was operational, perhaps to illustrate the applicability of the project. An earlier version of the same proposal had been developed and captured in the year 1933, in the German movie Der Tunnel [5]. By 1945, trains that used the vacuum principle to achieve speeds of over 1000 meters per hour were already in place, thanks to pioneers of real engineering studies. One of the major engineering pioneers of such designs was Robert Goddad who devoted much of his energy to similar engineering research. Three decades later, engineering articles that widely advocated for adoption of the technology were circulating. Vacuum train attention changed in the 80s after discovery of the Japanese Maglev research [6]. Transatlantic Tunnel theory bases its postulates on the past engineering works where transport lines have been suspended in water. According to the Discovery Channel, the English Channel links England to France in an almost similar way that popular transatlantic models envision [7]. Current top speed train formats are designed on magnetism and vacuum principles to enhance efficiency in terms of speed and resistance. Such trains models came into existence in the year 2004 when Shanghai. Famous progress towards the realization of the project was made through the contribution made by Frak Davidson, who carried out similar research on the applicability of such a project. Assisted by another prominent engineering designer by the name Earnst Frankel, Davidson had made some of the most promising contributions to the project. In his earlier engineering projects, Davidson had participated in the study operations of a fact-finding group of the possibility of setting up a tunnel underneath the English Channel; the English Channel Tunnel. The school of thought that has been propagated for a possible Transatlantic Tunnel design mainly relies on the work of Davidson. He proposed a system that would apply a suspended tunnel that is about 300 feet into the ocean. Another postulate of his design is the anchorage in deep sea where tethering is used to connect the tunnel to the anchor. Besides, he had also postulated that a vacuum would be necessary in his design, to facilitate top speed for the train. Finally, he also envisioned a magnetic train system being introduced into the same system for stability and speed enhancement [8]. 1.2.3 Design Approach Vacuum trains have been used in many high speed models that have been able to achieve extraordinary efficiency. To achieve the fastest speed that suits the model of train inside the tube-like tunnel, evacuation of the air that is inside the tube is usually necessary. This leads to the creation of an air free column which is capable of achieving speed similar to that achieved by a falling object in air. Bearing in mind that the project traverses across the entire Atlantic Ocean, time would be a significant aspect for any useful and efficient transport system. The best solutions so far generated by the engineering fraternity have largely relied on the vacuum train model which delivers results for top speed [9]. Magnetic Levitation system of transportation that uses magnetic force to propel locomotives has also been added into the design. Also referred to as maglev trains, the trains so propelled using magnetic field rely on three important components namely; source of electric energy, metal coils and large magnets. There are several advantages that the Maglev system presents to the design, including speed and stability. In this model, trains are lifted from ground level and are functioned on the principle of electromagnetism. According to Sirohiwala, Tandon and Vysetty, two main principles of engineering are exploited by the system, namely; Electromagnetic Suspension which relies on attraction forces as well as Electrodynamic Suspension which uses repulsion forces [10]. A combination of the vacuum and magnetic levitation systems have also been explored and found out to give better results. The benefits of a magnetic system coupled to the vacuum system will deliver not only top speed but also stability in the tunnel transport. According to the research conducted by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, non contact bearings that magnetic levitation trains apply facilitate the realization of very high speeds and in conditions such as those present in vacuum train designs [11]. Also, utilization of both systems in a high speed train system facilitates the elimination of frictional force which generally causes wear and tear. This implies that a hybrid system of the two systems could offer more benefits in cost reduction than most other systems. Currently, the design that could be applied for the project heavily borrows from the engineers who postulated a similar design called Channel Tunnel that could run under the English Channel [12]. Suspension design is preferred by engineers, where surface turbulence and the underground uncertainties are handled. Joining of pontoons will be carried out at a distance of about 50 meters below the water surface. To hold the huge pontoons in place, heavy sea anchors will be dipped to the floor of the sea and tethers used to connect the two. By so doing, several challenges will be overcome, including deep sea pressure, surface collision with ships as well as heavy waves. This distance is safe also for possible rescue operation, in case there is an emergency in the tunnel. A cylindrical design has been adopted by the design since cylinders have inherent strength against wave forces, by reducing reactive resistance. The heavy pontoons that house the train are postulated to have a thick casing that is cylindrical in shape. A special vessel will transport the pontoons to the sea and facilitate their submersion as well as connection to the extended tunnel using special fastening screws and adjoining. Tethering will then be done onto an immersed anchor that sits deep into the sea floor. A continued extension of the tube will facilitate the completion of the tunnel from America to Europe. 1.2.4 Alternative Designs Besides the suspension design that is currently advocated for by many engineers, there were two other designs that were postulated for the same. The first postulated tunnel type was in the form of a seabed drilling process that characterized traditional tunnel construction. On an account of the involved difficulties, this proposal was later rejected. These difficulties included the huge depths of the Atlantic Ocean at some points as well as the presence of submarine mountains. In addition, major earthquake prone regions posed a threat to the successful traversing of the tunnel. In earlier versions of the tunnel design, a different approach was envisioned by constructing the transatlantic tunnel on the surface and eventually submerging it into the bottom of the ocean. This design was likewise rejected on intricacies that revolve around hydrodynamics in a huge water body such as the Atlantic Ocean. Pressure of the huge water column possessed by the Atlantic Ocean was identified as a threat to the form of structure to be submerged. It is alleged that the materials proposed for use by the tunnel cannot withstand the huge pressure exerted at the bottom of the sea. Besides, human beings cannot perform the construction functions at the bottom of the sea due to the high pressure. Any rescue operation in case of an emergency would almost certainly be in futility since the destructive nature of the pressure could be hazardous even to the rescue teams. 1.2.5 The Project Several issues are involved in the design of an appropriate system that is able to overcome the challenges expected in the Atlantic Ocean. By making some of the most difficult decisions regarding the safety risks and costs incurred, engineers are determined to deliver a suitable Transatlantic Tunnel. The most disturbing questions that the engineers have had to solve regarding the project touch on the route, source of money, resistance, risks as well as the benefits. This section of the report discusses some of these underlying intricacies that designers have been compelled to solve. 1.2.5.1 Route Several routes were considered for various reasons, but one route is particularly preferred for the same. In order to ensure that the tunnel traverses the huge distance form America to Europe in less than hour, several factors are considered to arrive at the preferred route. Cost and safety are among the most important considerations made by designers. Whereas a straight and direct route could be shorter and economical for the project, safety considerations could prop up due to the earthquake activity along the straight route. The risks involved in the project must be closely quantified to ensure that the massive investment made does not get compromised deep into the actualization [13]. According to Sirohiwala, Tandon and Vysetty, the most applicable route that the project will consider is the route that avoids some challenging geographical conditions in the Atlantic Ocean. Following well researched calculations of distance and appropriate route, engineers have been able to find out the route that passes through Iceland and some parts in south Greenland from London then reach New York from the North Eastern side to be suitable [14]. Despite extra costs being incurred for the drilling of the land sections in the connecting regions in the north, this route design has been able to overcome adverse results likely to be encountered in the deep ocean regions with earthquake activity. Besides, extreme weather conditions found in the northern hemisphere around Iceland and Greenland pose a challenge to the continuity of the project in the regions. However threatening this proposed route appears in terms of extreme temperatures to the north as well as drilling necessity, the corresponding challenges of the alternative route are also considered. In view of the challenges encountered by avoiding this route, earthquakes are much more of a risk when taken in comparison. Unexpected destruction to the system poses as a more serious and potent threat to the project than the former mentioned risks. In addition to destruction, deep ocean pressure factors also cause a huge setback to the implementation of the project. When considered in comparison, drilling and harsh weather factors encountered in the preferred route are less potent costs than what would be needed to counter the high pressure in deep sea. It is projected that the pressure exerted by the water column at deep sea could cause serious trouble to the integrity of the system. The cost likely to be incurred for such materials that can withstand the huge pressure as well as carry out the construction works that deep is very high. Maintenance could consequently be expected to carry a very huge cost element and risk when compared to the drilling procedure. 1.2.5.2 Air Resistance Train transport faces some resistance from the air, just like several other forms of transport. In top speed models, a streamlined front end has been adopted in design to overcome the resistance. The introduction of the vacuum considerably reduces the drag. The design of the tunnel must also be responsive to avoid natural drag designs. Aerodynamic drag is particularly common inside a tunnel than it is outside a tunnel. Aerodynamic drag is experienced accompanied by pressure waves that travel as fast as sound and gets altered as the train gets introduced into the tunnel, changes its velocity as well as when cross-sectional aspects of the tunnel get changed too. Fluctuations in pressure penetrate the train where aural discomfort is experienced by the passengers. Generally, confinement of the environment around the train causes changes in the aerodynamic system of the tunnel. At the thin end of the tunnel, the amount of pressure changes is determined by how long the tunnel and the train are as well as by the entry time taken before a second train enters the tunnel. To determine the amplitudes of the aerodynamic pressure variations involved, speed, nose geometry as well as blockage ratio are used. Bearing in mind that the Transatlantic Tunnel is a very long Tunnel, it is predictable that a maglev system will contribute very large amounts of pressure variations and possible discomfort. Aerodynamic drag is also characterized by the directly proportional relationship it has with power consumption. Air resistance is usually reduced by about eight times with a reduction of velocity by half. This means that the power consumption varies with proportion to speeds cube. In view of the other factors involved in resistance, size and shape of the head with regard to the degree of streamlined nature also determine power consumed. It is therefore a common design across train models proposed for the Transatlantic Tunnel having a streamlined shape. There is a general challenge posed by aerodynamics of a top speed train that uses a tunnel. The flow of the air at the exit of the tunnel is usually at a very high velocity that is about ten times more than the ordinary requirement of a smooth ride [15]. 1.2.5.3 Investment (Funding Parties) Apparently, the issue of funding and the most important partners has not been at a critical and determinative stage. Project enhancement proposals have only been circulating without a mention of how the funds could be secured: However, by the look of the benefits that the two main continents and the entire world stand to gain in case of a successful implementation, funding should be forthcoming. Perhaps what is needed is a strongly convincing organized lobby platform to ensure that stakeholders are brought on board. States incidental to the project are however expected to play a key role in the overall funding requirements of the project. This implies that the US, Canada and Britain have a more direct funding role to make for the project than any other state. Direct benefits expected from the use of the tunnel are likely to compel these states to make the investment in anticipation of the same. However, their willingness and therefore the prospects of the realization of the project will depend on the level of their satisfaction that the engineering work done delivers. It is expected that the investment opportunity that the project avails could attract attention of a regional funding due to the creation of the trading blocks that have characterized continents such as the EU. The EU is largely an economic block that taps into unexplored opportunities on behalf of the member states and such a lucrative project could have direct funding from the block. However, just as individual states would demand the ascertaining of certain project reliability score, the EU could also work on assessments to ensure sustainability of the project. The ball goes back to the engineering field to carry out as much research and development studies as would constitute an irresistible offer for funding during lobbying for funds. Alternatively, private sector investment and funding for the project cannot be left out. With evidence of some major investments being solely undertaken by the private sector, the possibility of contributions into this project cannot be ruled out. Commercial activities that the private sector will anticipate to achieve upon completion of the project will spur interest which is consequently likely to avail funding. Development partners of the involved states are likewise in the list of likely funding source based on commercial benefits that they would obtain from the project. 1.2.5.4 Challenges and Dangers Ocean currents are one of the challenges that the tunnel would have to be prepared to withstand. Across the Atlantic Ocean, very strong current waves exist for instance the Gulf Stream. Structural oscillation design will need to be very strong such that the tethering system adopted will take care of the swaying motion of the storm. Relating the suspended tunnel to suspension bridges, motion occasioned by wind and water has been found out to be catastrophic. Major suspension bridges such as the Tacoma Narrows Bridge have been brought down by strong winds and a similar phenomenon can be expected from strong ocean currents for a suspension tunnel. Suspending the tunnel in water will necessitate the use of deep sea anchors that will ensure firm tethering. Bearing in mind the depth of the ocean occasionally goes to nearly five miles, the possibility of achieving firm tethering into the sea appears evasive or a cumbersome design. Besides the technical requirements that the project will need to facilitate anchorage to such depths, the materials quantity and quality that can facilitate this project are almost unimaginable. In view of the distance and possible design consumption, it is estimated that around one billion metric tons of steel will be needed. In addition, the ocean floor where the tunnel will traverse is almost certain to encounter some region of earthquake vulnerability. In view of the hazardous effects of earthquakes to engineering projects, the inevitable encounter with such factors make the project one of those marred with uncertainty and challenging circumstances. In addition to exposure to earthquake challenges, the geography of the ocean floor through which the tunnel will traverse presents daunting route choice technicalities. Despite there being several options of possible routes that the tunnel can pass, each of the options has its unique set of challenges such as the most economical distance. About 3,000 miles of distance across the ocean stand in the way of the projects success. The long distance from North America to Europe will require consideration of the most applicable route and what point of initiation or termination to design the project. Besides the issue of the route, the project demands a massive construction material that requires the world supply. For instance, from the beginning to the end of the project, available world steel production capacity will be highly beleaguered. Whether the needed materials demand will be estimated and stored in such reserves as would be capable of sustaining the project remains a strategic oper ation challenge. The continuity of the project will face several challenges among which weather will appear to impact heavily. In the recent weather patterns, severe winters have been experienced in Europe and North America and across the Atlantic Ocean. Temperatures way below the freezing point will certainly affect the rate of project progress during winters. Together with the distance complexities, other factors such time will therefore act as an impediment to the projects desire to be expeditious. Estimates of the duration of time needed to complete this project stand at a staggering one century or more. High speed trains designated for the tunnel transport require very high levels of stability. To achieve very high stability as required could pose as a threat since very little breaches could severely damage the system. Most faults in an engineering project depend on the level of stability flaws. Besides the anchor and tether system that the tunnel design adopts, speed inside the tunnel needs to be enhanced for better stability. One of the proposed ways to achieve top speed for the train is through the creation of a vacuum. To achieve a vacuum over a relatively shorter distance has proven to be an uphill task for engineers; how to achieve this over a large distance such as from America to Europe is even unimaginable. How to achieve top speed for stability purposes appears to pose the most potent challenge. 1.2.5.5 Advantages a) Energy Tunnels Maglev systems are environment friendly and highly save on energy due to electrical energy consumption .The system appears to be shielded from the controversial oil energy sources of energy. Usage of nuclear energy will not only save money but spaces utilized for fuel carriage. b) Maintenance Ordinary railway and road transport particularly experience heavy wear and tear costs which are not encountered in maglev systems. Basing maintenance costs on wear and tear occasioned by contact, it will be less expensive to maintain a system where no contact is experienced. c) Speed Among the most striking features of the proposed train model, speed is by far the best. These train models can achieve speeds of up to 500 kilometers per hour. Business will be enhanced between Europe and America to supplement to the sea and air transport systems. d) Weather While compared to several other modes of transport, tunnel train transport tackles unfavorable weather in a dramatic way. Inside the tunnel, weather based hindrances to operations of the train are not expected. Poor weather conditions such as visibility and snow cannot affect the flow of the train at its top speed. e) Cost of Operation Since train transport is generally cheaper when compared to some other modes of transportation, costs of operation are considerably expected to reduce from America to Europe. This is so despite the capital initialization of the project which might be higher than any other project done before. f) Capacity Trains have a higher load capacity than many other modes of transport, including air transport. Achieving a supersonic train model would by far outdo major huge aircraft models such as the Concorde, which is not operational today due to several factors [16]. 1.2.5.6 Disadvantages a) Time. Proposals might be very appealing to the eye but the amount of time required for the completion of the project act as a major hindrance. It is estimated that over at least a century lies between the proposal and the actual implementation of the project. b) Distance To construct and transport materials from the mainland to the construction site may prove to be an onerous task for the engineers. Distance for movement of labor and materials will act in hindrance to the projects implementation. c) Cost Despite the relatively lower cost of production, there is a high certainty that the project will be the highest in history of engineering works. It is estimated that labor, materials and other logistic costs will need more than one financier for the project. According to a similar project study carried out by the Norwegians, cost was the only hindrance [17]. d) Construction Conditions Construction across the large Atlantic Ocean will have to face serious weather challenges including freezing temperatures as well as strong winds and currents. The most appropriate route will have to be chosen to overcome this challenge, which may appear to be expensive. Deep sea construction of the tunnel will be faced with high pressure that demands for specialized machinery instead of human beings. e) Geography As mentioned before, geographic issues will be encountered by the construction of the tunnel, demanding drilling to supplement to the suspended model. Drilling will be necessitated by over-land sections encountered in the cheapest route choice. This will not only affect the pace of construction but also change the design of the train. f) Emergency and Rescue In case of adverse hitches in the operation of the top speed train, it will be impossible to perform a rescue operation. Other transport systems are easily accessible for rescue operations than in sea transport, worst scenario being a submerged system such as a suspension tunnel. g) Risk Uncertainty As it is currently with major civil engineering works, measurement of risk involves several issues, with some having collapsed more than once. Collapsing of such a massive construction could not be ruled out completely, bearing in mind the existence of several hindrances to the system. h) Passenger Comfort Sudden acceleration and deceleration leaves an unpleasant feeling in the body of the passengers. Since the Transatlantic Tunnel is designed on a very high speed platform, sudden acceleration changes will be expected to be an unpleasant experience for the customers, unless more time is allowed to facilitate adaptation of the body. 1.2.6 Project Feasibility Checking is likely to feature the feasibility aspects of the project, technology, economics, law, operation and schedule. Whereas relevant technology is likely to be within reach for such a project, clearly outlined requirements of the project are yet to be prepared. Maybe by the time the project reaches critical stages of implementation, such details will be availed. In the current information and technology age, anything is virtually possible since all the relevant information is within reach [18]. In terms of economics, it can be said that the possibility of the project reaching a successful end is quite remote. Legal frameworks are not a major hindrance since similar projects have taken place but at a lower magnitude. Operational feasibility is likewise uncertain, having several loopholes in the coordination of the research as well as funding intricacies involved. With regard to schedule, the project is unfeasible as it is, since time expected for completion is over a century. Within the span of such duration of time, several options would have propped up making the project obliterated and unnecessary. Efficiency of the project is also uncertain due to the challenges expected ahead. Whether there is a need for such a project is a question that could be argued favorably or not. However, as it currently stands, it is needless to embark on the project. Conclusion Transatlantic Tunnel will remain to be one of the greatest civil engineering ideas of the human history. Despite the challenges that the project presents to engineering designers, it can be done, but at a very high cost. The speed of the train could challenge investors to quicken implementation since the benefits of the project will proportionately flow speedily. No matter how interesting the project seems, time factor and cost act as the major hindrances to its implementation.

Essay --

1 INTRODUCTION: Haptics is a recent enhancement to virtual environments allowing users to â€Å"touch† and feel the simulated objects with which they interact. Haptics is the science of touch. The word derives from the Greek haptikos meaning â€Å"being able to come into contact with†. The study of haptics emerged from advances in virtual reality. Virtual reality is a form of human-computer interaction (as opposed to keyboard, mouse and monitor) providing a virtual environment that one can explore through direct interaction with our senses. To be able to interact with an environment, there must be feedback. For example, the user should be able to touch a virtual object and feel a response from it. This type of feedback is called haptic feedback .In human-computer interaction; haptic feedback means both tactile and force feedback. Tactile, or touch feedback is the term applied to sensations felt by the skin. Tactile feedback allows users to feel things such as the texture of surfaces, temperature and vibration. Force feedback reproduces directional forces that can result from solid boundaries, the weight of grasped virtual objects, and mechanical compliance of object and inertia. Tactile feedback, as a component of virtual reality simulations, was pioneered at MIT. The term haptics in its broadest sense relates to the study of touch and the faculty by which external objects or forces are perceived through contact with the body. The word itself derives from the Greek haptikos, â€Å"able to touch†. Haptics can be found in wide range of devices. In the extreme with respect to precision, surgical simulators use haptics to provide realistic forces that emulate the feel of a real medical procedure. In the extreme with respect to the magnitude of t... ...lications Design and implement a few haptic related projects for the benefit of physically challenged people. This proposal develops an approach for haptic exploration of unknown objects by robotic fingers. Because haptic exploration is coupled with manipulation and exploration using a sequence of phases is presented. With specialized fingers and sensors and appropriate planning and control robots can also be enabled to explore the worlds through touch. Haptic exploration has applications in many areas including planetary exploration, undersea salvage, operations in remote and hazardous conditions. Application of the human haptic interaction, multi sensory perception, action and multimodal feedback can be applied in the fields of education, rehabilitation, medicine, computer aided design, skill training, computer games, driver controls, simulation and visualization.

Cosi character profiles and backdrops

The main once is obviously the theatre but the more in depth backgrounds Is the movement of the people In the real world. The Vietnam Moratorium, which was fighting for the government to return all the troops from the Vietnam War and the Sexual Revolution, which was a social movement that fought against the traditional codes towards to sexual relationships. The Vietnam Moratorium The moratorium was a mass demonstration against involvement in the Vietnam War.The demonstration took place throughout the US on October 1 5th, 1969 Jerome Groomsman's call for a general strike, if the war was still going by October, is what sparked the moratorium movement. It was announced In December of 1969, that not only would American troops would be brought home, but one Australian troop would also be brought home towards the middle of 1970. This of course did not stop the moratorium movement. Australian demonstrators continued to make plans for more rallies and continued to demand the removal of all t he troops.The strength of the moratorium movement greatly shocked the Australian government. They were shocked at the level of anti- AR and even anti-government feeling that was spreading throughout the country. The third moratorium in June 1971 closed the Centre. In Melbourne, on 30 June 1971, there was march of nearly 100,000 people. By this time public opinion was beginning to turn decisively against conscription and Australian involvement in the war. Sexual Revolution The sass's were also known as a time of ‘Sexual Liberation'. They fought for the acceptance of sex outside of heterosexual and marriages.Their aim was to make contraception, public nudity, premarital sex and homosexuality all normal. This also included the legalization of abortion. A new, sexualities popular culture swung into Australian life in the sass's, and it seemed everyone wanted to be apart of it. Watching a porn film at the local movie theatre and looking through a sex advice manual in public were bo th markers that the Sexual Revolution was taking action. An outgrowth of the countercultures began with casting aside traditional sexual restraints and gave the starting gun to a decade of eroticism and experimentation.Australians broke many sexual rules during this era including interracial dating, open homosexuality, communal living, casual nudity and dirty language. Sexual activity mongo the younger generations sparked widely as well. Designers also took advantage of the new era by producing mini skirts, hot pants, halter-tops and clothes designed to show off a woman's body. â€Å"Coos fan Tutee† was an opera that was written by Mozart and was first performed in 1790 is based on a pair of male friends that test their girlfriend's loyalty to their relationships.The name roughly translates to â€Å"Women are like that†. The name suggests that the opera is about how women are unable to stay faithful to their beloved and often go around with other men behind the back of their relationships. The first performance was held in Vienna and since 1790 the opera has been revamped to sometimes more modern themes and held in theatres all over the world. Louis Anorak's semi-autobiographical play, Coos is a touching portrayal of the opera that is acted by patients in a Melbourne mental institution.All of these themes are incorporated into the play that Lewis wrote based on his experiences during the moratorium and the sexual revolution about Coos fan Tutee. They all tie in together and they all make their own parallel to Lewis and his life; they all have a habit of getting in the way. Many of the patients are very passionate about the events occurring outside their asylum walls, as it is the only thing they have to concentrate on, so it seems they put all their time and effort into creating something beautiful. Julies character is significant in a number of ways.Firstly, she is very opposed to the idea of love. She always thought that love was being foolish and stupid. † IN another example, Julie and Lucy aver very similar. Julie says about men and fidelity: â€Å"l don't like men's double standards, I guess. Men want women to deceive them because it will prove their worst thoughts about women. Whereas Lucy believes that men wasn't women to â€Å"pretend they're true and faithful. † Julie in a small way is an alternated version of Lucy who Just happens to be living in a mental asylum. She is a character who brings Lewis into a new and strange world.

Oedipus the King

In Oedipus the King, by Sophocles, Oedipus is told from an oracle that was going to kill his father and marry his mother. Oedipus left Cornith, his home, to get away from this omen. In fact Oedipus did kill his biological father and marry his biological mother. After learning the truth, Oedipus punished himself by stabbing his eyes out and exiling himself from Thebes. The sentence for the crime of parricide and incest was fair. "I pray that that man's life be consumed in evil and wretchedness. And as for me, this curse applies no less," (1.31) Oedipus made this promise to the people of Thebes, reassuring them that the criminal would suffer the consequences even if he himself were the murder. When Oedipus was told by the many accountants that he fit the description of the murderer he was outraged. "Too long been blind to those for whom I was searching! From this hour, go in darkness!" (exodos.49) Oedipus said this as he stabbed his eyes, leaving himself blind. Oedipus' punishment fit his crime because his life as he knew it would never be the same. He now had to live with the guilt of murder and incest. "Drive me out of this country as quickly as may be To a place where no human voice can ever greet me." (exodos.207) Oedipus also exiled himself from Thebes. Not only leaving himself blind but with out family or friends. Oedipus chose an exile from Thebes to leave everything he knew and had. He also proved himself to the people of Thebes by showing them that he was a strong man for upholding his vow to punish the guilty man. Another reason Oedipus left the country was because he did not want his children to see him as a blind sinner. Oedipus' exile was fair because by doing this he lived with less guilt. He wouldn't think about what people thought of him after a few years. By not seeing him the people of Thebes would most likely forget of the wretchedness that had occurred...

Ultimate and Penultimate

Ultimate and Penultimate Ultimate and Penultimate Ultimate and Penultimate By Maeve Maddox A DWT reader noticed this example of the use of penultimate as if it meant ultimate or best: a commentator at a tv broadcast of a national dog show commented on a particular dog (a close contender for best in show) being the penultimate dog of its breed group. Penultimate means â€Å"next to last.† The only way the dog referred to could be the â€Å"penultimate dog of its breed group† would be if it were one of two. Even then, the speaker would have to have some way of knowing which dog would be the last to die. Here are two more examples of writers using penultimate as if it meant ultimate: And since it is, after all, the penultimate in mens formal wear, screwing up the tux is also the penultimate faux pas. Ezine article With many benefits available to us in regards to protein, we should consider whey protein isolate as the penultimate source of protein. nutrition blog That the writer of the second example believes penultimate means something like â€Å"the most important† is further illustrated in the article I’m quoting from: â€Å"Whey is perhaps the healthiest form of protein that is available to our bodies.† (Yes, â€Å"in regards† is nonstandard.) I suspect that the extra syllable in penultimate leads some speakers to believe it must mean â€Å"more than ultimate,† the way the prefixes super- and extra- elevate the base words in superman and extraordinary. It doesn’t help that various manufacturers use the word penultimate to name their games, applications, and other products. Ultimate, from Latin ultimus, â€Å"last, final,† means â€Å"lying beyond all others.† The Roman poet Virgil coined the expression â€Å"Ultima Thule† to mean a far-off land or an unattainable goal. Medieval mapmakers applied the term to unexplored northern lands that lay beyond the borders of the world they knew. The prefix pene- means â€Å"nearly, almost, all but.† It occurs in a few obsolete English words, like pene-lake, â€Å"an expanse of water almost surrounded by land.† Like pene-, the pen- in penultimate is from Latin paene, â€Å"almost.† A peninsula is â€Å"almost an island.† The penultimate event or item in a series is â€Å"almost the last. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Farther vs. FurtherProved vs. Proven25 Idioms About Bread and Dessert

Oracle vs. Google Lawsuit (Android and Java) Research Paper

Oracle vs. Google Lawsuit (Android and Java) - Research Paper Example Google’s Android infringes Oracle America’s copyrights in Java and Google is not licensed to do so. The seven patented technologies in question are: 6,125,447 (Protection Domains To Provide Security in a Computer System); 6, 192,476 (Controlling Access to Resource); 5,966,702 (Method and Apparatus for Preloading of Classes Through Memory Space Cloning of a Master Runtime System Process; RE38,104 (Method And Apparatus For Resolving Data References In Generate Code - A reissued patent; the original number was 5,367,685); 6,910,205 (Interpreting Functions Utilizing A Hybrid Of Virtual And Native Machine Instructions); and, 6,061,520 (Method And System for Performing Static Initialization) (EndSoft Patents 2012). The Java technology was developed by Sun Microsystems now called Oracle America, after its acquisition by Oracle. The deal, valued at $7.4 billion, strengthened Oracle’s objective to out-consolidate its rivals, which was already buoyed by previous acquisitio n of several large companies (Shankland 2010). Because of this, Oracle became a hardware company as well, with an integrated product being pitched to the customers as a combination of hardware and software solution. Android is a Google product, developed in its move to expand in the mobile computing market. It was originally created by Android Inc., which Google bought in 2005. Today, Android is being maintained and developed by the Open Handset Alliance, which is a consortium of 86 hardware, software and telecommunications organizations led by Google. Legal Issues Oracle’s claims of code infringement had been modified in October 2010, which further specified its complaint against Android. In its amended claim filed before the court, Oracle alleged that Google flagship operating system is using or copying Java technologies in its class libraries and documentation, further stressing that approximately one-third of Android’s API packages are â€Å"derivative† of t he Java API packages, including examples of code that aim to prove its point (Lopez-Tarruella, 2012, 279). For Google’s alleged copyright and patent infringement, Oracle originally asked for over $2.4 billion in order to compensate for the damages, which, of course, Google countered as inflated (Latif 2012). Oracle has revised this figure as it amended its complaints several times. Today, it stands at $168 million. Google still think the figures as baseless. In a legal strategy designed to fend off attacks or at least protect its Android ecosystem from lawsuits such as that lodged by Oracle, Google has acquired Motorola Mobility its trove of patented mobile and computing technologies, in addition to the thousands acquired from IBP Patents. The rationale for this move is simple. With a comprehensive range of important mobile and future mobile technologies, Google is in a better position to protect the companies that use Android because it could threaten Oracle with counter lic ense suits. Also, Google could refuse to license technologies to companies such as Microsoft, Nokia and perhaps Oracle if it starts its own mobile computing program in the future. Finally, Google – through its newly acquired patents - could enter into cross-licensing deals with these companies in exchange for dropping the lawsuits or being amenable

Rite of Passage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Rite of Passage - Essay Example It is irrefutable that the way rites of passages are being conducted had evolved over time. As cultures recognized the changing needs of their member, they have devised new formal procedures to celebrate the transitions in their lives. However, rites of passage have already changed in context and meaning. For example, an individual's coming of age which was celebrated by a ritual which required jungle survival to test the survival ability and responsibility of an adolescent is now replaced with formal arties to celebrate the freedom from families especially parents. The current problematic situation of adolescents nowadays requires a modern rite of passage to signal their coming of age and transition to adulthood. This modern rite of passage should not only serve as an indication of the adolescents' newfound freedom to do what they want and the end of their parents' authority over them but also address the numerous issues which are currently faced by adolescents. This paper will present a modern rite of passage which will mark the transition between adolescence and adulthood. This will try to incorporate the issues which confront the modern youth in order to equip them with the much needed knowledge and skill to face adulthood responsibly. This report will be divided into three parts according to the distinct phases of rites of passage-separation, transition, and incorporation. This rite of passage will be conducted to teenagers aged 15-17 years of age. SEPARATION: LOSS OF IDENTITY The first part of rite of passage is called separation which is a process to end the current identity of the adolescent. This part is very important as the creation of a new identity is not possible without ending the old one. Thus, this modern rite of passage will begin with the physical separation of the adolescents from the significant people in their lives especially their families and friends. Adolescents aged 15-17 will need to prepare for the rite of passage by packing their clothing and other personal belongings to stay for a Transition Camp. It is extremely important that adolescents will only be restricted to bring what they will need. These are those basic things that individuals can't leave without like clothing, slippers, and things for personal hygiene. It should be noted that things like iPods, cellular phones, PCs, notebooks, and laptops shouldn't be brought to the Transition Camp. This will ensure that the adolescents will be fully separated from the outside world and will let them concentrate on the activities in the camp. Communication with people from outside the camp will not be tolerated. Also, no drugs, alcohol, and non-participants will be allowed inside the camp. Specific rules will also be observed inside the Transition Camp which will govern all the participants. The camp site will cater to both boys and girls. The boys will share a communal bedroom will all the boys while the girls will also be sleeping together. The adolescents will be doing on all the household chores in the camp. In order to organize the housekeeping, they will be grouped and assigned specific tasks for each week. The groups will consist of both boys and girls. Each of the household tasks will be rotated so that each group will have the chance to learn every household chore. Separation from the important persons in the adolescents is symbolic for this modern rite of passage. As the rite of passa

Children with Intellectual Disability Research Proposal

Children with Intellectual Disability - Research Proposal Example The apparent impression discerning from literature surveys is that of lack of consensus. Cuskelly puts it forthright; the research studies dealing with psychological adjustment of the siblings of individuals with disability, gives an impression of contradiction, or confusion (1999). Another methodical advance of recent origin emphasizes quantitative research. This approach seeks to narrow the disagreements referred above through meta-analysis. The strategy used herein is to assess factors that produce inconsistencies, stemming from both, substantive and methodological. One popular approach of quantitative research is that of vote-count meta-analysis, which presents a tabulation of studies by their outcomes. Using this technique, Howe reviewed 21 studies to show that there appears to be a negative psychological impact on siblings of intellectually challenged individual (1993). However, even here, conclusions vary. Summers et.al, reported both positive and negative consequences on the sibling of an individual with disability (1994). The research problem embodies the research study, both in its scope and depth, and unambiguously defined (Fouche, 2005). In this study, the research problem is centered around the psychosocial effects on the siblings of individuals subject to intellectual disability. The World H... The prevalence of intellectual disability is generally estimated to be between 1-3% of the population. People with intellectual disability (PWID) represent a heterogeneous group with a varied range of highly complex needs, yet they remain among the most vulnerable members of society (O'Hara, 2008). The underlying rationale and principles of care for PWID have undergone radical changes in countries such as, USA, Europe, Australia and Canada over the past four decades. The focus is now on civil and human rights, with social inclusion and citizenship free from discrimination (Bouras, 2002). The emphasis has shifted to the movement towards integration, participation and choice with the development of community based facilities, and growing empowerment and self advocacy for PWID and their families (Tsuda, 2006). The family is seen as the most appropriate living environment for PWID, which is a function both of cultural values and availability of services (Special Olympics, 2003). In this context, this study shall identify with recommendations, the counseling and support needs of siblings of individuals with intellectual disability. The study shall also seek to integrate the current efforts of agencies, organizations and support groups with the findings of this study. Research Theme: The researcher has selected the following main themes for focused study, research, and analysis with regard to siblings of children with intellectual disability: a) Psychosocial risks: kind, intensity, short and long term effects b) Coping strategies and family support systems c) Society and community empathy, sensitivity and support systems d) Cultural impact; gender impact; ageing factor; in adapting strategies e) Positive spin-offs, if

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Essay Example for Free

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Essay Introduction Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that presents in form of anxiety disorder, and it usually develops following exposure to an event or incident that is terrifying and mostly associated with an increased risk or actual occurrence of severe body harm. These events exceed the coping capabilities of the individual, resulting into psychological trauma. As a result of the trauma, the affected individual develops fear conditioning in their brain, possibly because of certain brain chemicals that are released. Some structures in the brain are also thought to undergo atrophy. The risk of developing post traumatic stress disorder is also influenced by genetics and personal characteristics, for example childhood experience, previous exposure and preexisting conditions such as depression, gender and degree of exposure to trauma (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Most people who develop this condition are those who have been exposed to traumatic incidents in their childhood or adulthood, like natural disasters, manmade disasters, accidents, military combat, and violent physical abuse, as individuals or witnessing someone else undergo the incidents. About two thirds of the population worldwide becomes exposed to significant traumatic situations in the course of their lifetime. The level of exposure to or experience of a traumatic event is consistently associated with the likelihood of developing PSTD. The development of post traumatic stress disorder also shows significant correlation with poor socioeconomic settings, age, race, ethnicity, and employment status. The affected people undergo continuous frightening thoughts as they recall the terrifying experiences, often having sleep problems and feeling detached and becoming withdrawn. The patients develop psychological problems such as neuroticism, guilt, difficulties in concentration, poor coping skills, and obsessive symptoms. The level of social support available for the people who have been exposed to traumatic events is the strongest determinant of the risk of post traumatic stress disorder (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Post traumatic stress disorder is classified as acute, chronic or delayed onset. Acute posttraumatic stress disorder presents with symptoms that do not persist beyond three months, while in the chronic form the symptoms last more than three months. Delayed onset post traumatic stress disorder is the one in which the symptoms start appearing about six months following exposure to the traumatic event. As compared to normal stress that is usually associated with acute reactions that rapidly return to the normal state, the biological and psychological mechanisms in post traumatic stress disorder are chronic and often become severe with time (Fullerto n Ursano, 2005). Current treatment of post traumatic stress disorder includes exposure therapies and anxiety management trainings as the first-line treatments. Pharmacological therapies such as the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have also been designed and shown to be effective, though intensive studies are in progress to develop other form of drugs. In spite of the possible efficacy of pharmaceutical interventions, psychological treatments still remain the preferred therapeutic approaches for this disorder (Keane, Marshall Taft, 2006). The outcome of the therapeutic interventions depends on the level of social support, and lack of symptoms such as avoidance, emotional numbing and hyperarousal. According to Keane, Marshall and Taft (2006), PSTD has been in existence for many centuries though it became recognized in the 1980. This condition was commonly linked to warfare, until studies demonstrated the occurrence of similar symptoms in the civilian population exposed to natural disasters, mass catastrophes and tragic accidents. Prior to this, post traumatic stress disorder was identified by different names such as, â€Å"shell shock, battle fatigue, accident neurosis, and post-rape syndrome† (Keane, Marshall Taft 2006, p.163). After the American Psychiatric Association classified post traumatic stress disorder, it was generally agreed that the condition resulted from traumatic events and not the previously perceived individual weakness. However, these traumatic events were taken to be stressors beyond the daily human experiences including war, natural calamities, manmade disasters, and rape among others. Symptoms of PSTD Symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder frequently alter the patient’s personal life and can affect one’s functional abilities. These symptoms mostly start immediately after the traumatic experience, but often they may appear several months or years since the exposure. These symptoms are classified into four types including reliving, avoidance, numbing and hyperarousal (Fletcher, 1996). Patients suffering from this disorder frequently relive memories of the traumatic incidents in form of flashback and nightmares. This reliving of traumatic events is often triggered by stimuli related to the event. Avoidance of scenes related to the traumatic event is also a common symptom presenting in individuals with post traumatic stress disorder. The patients show a tendency to avoid stimuli and triggers that are associated with the traumatic memories, and may engage in activities to keep them from thinking or discussing such events. Numbness may also manifest as a way of avoiding the traumatic memories. Hyperarousal is another common symptom in PSTD patients, whereby the victims become highly alert and lookout for threats. This makes the patients to become very irritable and have difficulties in concentrating. The patients may also develop sleeping disorders, exhibit violent behavior and startled responses (Rosen, 2004). Information processing in patients with PSTD Various models have been developed to explain the memory and concentration problems manifested by patients affected by post traumatic stress disorder. These models relate the cognitive problems with these patients with the changes in the brain structures that function in learning and memory. The first model is described as fear structure, whereby the brain of the affected individuals become programmed to process information associated with the threatening experience and subsequent physiological, physical and behavioral responses. Another information processing model is based on cognitive theory, with an assumption that the disorder progresses only if a person perceives the traumatic incident in a manner that makes the incident to become threatening after it has taken place. The perception of the trauma as being present results into intrusions and reliving symptoms, anxiety, and over alertness. Subsequently, the affected individual tries to decrease perceptions of the threat through behavioral and cognitive modifications, although these changes further perpetuate the symptoms (Rosen, 2004). Prevalence of PSTD Epidemiologic studies indicate that about 10 percent of the universal population experience PSTD at some point in their lifetime. Epidemiologic surveys also indicate that between a third and two-thirds of the world population experience or witness trauma at some point in life. The most common forms of traumatic events people get exposed to or experience in developed countries include grave harm or death, fire disasters, natural calamities, and life-threatening accidents. The most prevalent forms of trauma experienced by females are rape, sexual exploitation and abuse, physical assault, and neglect, while physical assault and military-related trauma are more prevalent in males (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Post traumatic stress disorder can occur at any age, and the period it takes to develop following exposure or experiencing of a traumatic event ranges from hours to years. The prevalence of PSTD in the general population is higher in females as compared to males, with an estimated prevalence of 10 percent and 5 percent respectively. Among individuals exposed to trauma, the prevalence of post traumatic stress disorder in males is 8 percent, while in females it is about 20 percent. The prevalence differences across gender lines are thought to be related to the specific form of trauma experienced. For instance, it has been shown that females who experience physical assault or are threatened with a weapon are at a high risk of developing post traumatic stress disorder as compared to men subjected to the same trauma. Similarly, males who experience sexual abuse are at a higher risk of developing PSTD as compared to the females who also experience the same stressor. Additionally, exposure to interpersonal violence among women is positively associated with later development of post traumatic stress disorder. In general, exposure to interpersonal violence is s trongly associated with the development of PSTD as compared to traumatic events that occur without a human perpetrator. Further studies show that of the entire population that experience or witness severe trauma at some point in their life, it is less than 20 percent who develop post traumatic stress disorder, thus suggesting the existence of many risk factors (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). The prevalence is significantly increased in countries where rates of violence, crimes and war are high, and also in parts of the world that are more prone to natural catastrophes. Younger age appears to be associated with a higher risk of developing post traumatic stress disorder (Keanne, Marshall, Taft, 2006). Meta analysis studies have also shown that children and teenagers who get exposed to traumatic events are 1.5 times likely to develop post traumatic stress disorder than adults exposed to the same trauma. These findings suggest that the developmental process of the disorder in young individuals varies from that of the adults. Lower education achievement is also associated with increased risk for this disorder. Other factors associated with high prevalence of post traumatic stress disorder include pre-existing psychiatric problems, juvenile delinquency, childhood adversity, personality disorders, genetic factors, severity of the trauma, and lack of social support (Schnurr, Friedman Bernardy, 2002). Though findings on race are not consistent, a strong correlation has been shown to exist between the race of a person and the development of post traumatic disorder. Some studies have indicated that whites have a lower risk of developing post traumatic stress disorder as compared to nonwhites, even when other risk factors like exposure to traumatic events are held constant (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Study findings have established that chronic PSTD is mostly associated with some psychiatric conditions and impaired psychosocial activities. Among these comorbid conditions include, â€Å"major depression, dysthemia, mania, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, simple phobia, agoraphobia, alcohol abuse/dependence, drug abuse, social phobia, and conduct disorder† (Schnurr, Friedman Bernardy 2002, p. 880). Despite these psychiatric conditions being risk factors for post traumatic stress disorder, the disorder itself can also be a predisposing factor for the psychiatric conditions. Etiology of PSTD The major etiologic factor in PSTD is the trauma. However, various studies have shown that not all individuals who get exposed to same traumatic events develop the disorder, thus indicating the existence of certain predisposing conditions. Recognition that trauma alone may not be the sole cause of post traumatic stress disorder and the observations that not all people who get exposed to traumatic events develop the disorder have led to identification of various aspects where individual differences may determine vulnerability. These aspects include appraisal tendencies, genetic makeup, and certain risk factors (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Appraisal tendencies relate to the individual perceptions of situations or events, whereby some individuals are likely to consider situation or events as threatening or horrifying as compared to other individuals. Clinical studies have shown that many individuals who experience or witness traumatic events do not develop post traumatic stress disorder. This is attributed to the individual variations on the ability to cope with traumatic situations, thus different individuals possess differing psychological reactions to similar traumatic situations. It has, therefore, been recognized that exposure to traumatic events gets perceived through cognitive and emotional mechanisms involving appraisal (Vieweg et al., 2006). Whereas some individuals may perceive a situation or event as a huge threat, others may perceive the same situation as a challenge that demands them to evolve coping abilities. A number of risk factors that render some people more vulnerable to developing post traumatic stress disorder than others have been identified. These risk factors are classified as pre-traumatic, traumatic or post-traumatic (Vieweg et al., 2006). Pre-traumatic factors that may predict later development of post traumatic stress disorder as identified by various studies are childhood trauma, the existence of psychiatric problems, childhood maladaptive behaviors, poor family background, introversion, gender, and existence of physical health problems among others. Studies on early periods of development show an increasing relationship between early life trauma and a greater likelihood for the development of PSTD (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006; Edsall, Karnik Steiner, 2005). This hypothesis is, however, supported by few data obtained from small samples. But still, it is well established that childhood abuse and experience of other trauma early in life are partially responsible for the manifestation of post PSTD later in life in the general adult population. In a study carried out in the USA by MaCauley et al. (1997), it was shown that a significantly high number of women with a greater disposition to develop post traumatic stress disorder had undergone early life physical assault, sexual abuse or serious neglect. The study investigated about 2000 adult females drawn from different socioeconomic groups, and who were attending primary care internal medicine practices. McCauley and colleagues found that 22 percent of the study population experienced many physical symptoms with much higher levels of, â€Å"depression, anxiety, somatization and interpersonal sensitivity, a fivefold higher prevalence of drug abuse and a twofold higher level of alcohol abuse† (McCauley et al. 1997, p. 1367). In general, the data supports the established models of risk for the development of PSTD, whereby genetic predisposition, temperament and childhood or adulthood trauma are significant risks factors for PSTD development. Therefore, the recent trauma experienced by an individual also triggers the development of post traumatic stress disorder. This has been shown to arise from the effects of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF), which is a hormone involved in regulating the autonomic, immune and behavioral reactions to any stress. Increased secretion of corticotropin releasing factor is associated with increased expression of psychiatric symptoms, including PSTD symptoms (Sapolsky, 1996). With regard to traumatic factors, many studies on post traumatic stress disorder have shown that there exists a direct relationship between severity of the trauma and subsequent development of the disorder. The severity of the trauma includes characteristics like the length of time the trauma took, the frequency of occurrence and the degree of harm or threat on life. Other aspects of the severity of trauma are the severity of the experience, whether somebody was harmed during the incident, whether the victim was involved directly or witnessed the trauma, and in case of sexual abuse, if the perpetrator of the atrocity was previously known to the victim. The severity of the trauma and PSTD are very consistent in the entire population, with high severity associated with increased risk for post traumatic stress disorder or severity of its symptoms (Edsall, Karnik Steiner, 2005). Studies have also shown that the post traumatic environment is also connected to later development of PSTD. Environments that are characterized by poor social support and disoriented social interaction patterns make people more vulnerable to develop post traumatic stress disorder (Ford, 2009). It has been shown that people who experience traumatic events such as rape victims and war veterans suffer from deleterious effects due to lack of post traumatic social support. Similarly, a number of studies have shown that post traumatic clinical interventions like debriefing are effective preventing later development of PSTD. Pathophysiology of PSTD Major psychobiologic processes that give human beings capabilities to effectively deal with stressful events have been shown to be impaired in individuals having PSTD. Among the affected processes include the fight and flight responses, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis, the fear conditioning, appraisal and the acoustic startle reactions (Ford, 2009). The fight and flight responses are brought about by the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system. In normal persons, the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system by a traumatic event results into a sequence of autonomic and muscular responses, which provide the person with capabilities to cope with the possible threat. However in people who have PSTD, it has been established that sympathetic nervous system responses and adrenergic dysregulation are excessively elevated. Even minor trauma related stimuli have been observed to trigger autonomic hyperresponsiveness. It has also been found that the amount of catecholamine in the urine of the victim is significantly increased. Other sympathetic nervous system abnormalities observed include, â€Å"down regulation of beta-2 and alpha-2 adrenergic receptors and increased reactivity to the alpha-2 antagonist yohimbine† (Ford 2009, p. 37). Increased reactivity of yohimbine is associated with triggering of panic attacks and trauma-related memories in people suffering from PSTD. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system also acts to enhance the ability of people to cope effectively with stress. In patients who are experiencing post traumatic stress disorder, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system is poorly modulated and the victims exhibit abnormal features like decreased amounts of cortisol in urine, increased amounts of lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptor and excessively inhibited dexamethasone (Sapolsky, 1996). Another psychobiologic process that has been shown to be impaired in patients with PSTD is the acoustic startle response. In normal individuals, the acoustic startle system helps in creating awareness of any possible threat. However, in patients affected by the disorder, they exhibit a reduced latency and elevated amplitude in acoustic-startle-eyeblink reflex. Besides, the patients also show marginally reduced normal dysregulation of the startle reflex (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Fear conditioning mechanisms have also been shown to be impaired in patients with PSTD. In normal individuals, fear conditioning mechanisms facilitate the storage of information relating to exposure or experience of aversive and threatening events, thus providing one with capabilities to cope with similar challenges in future (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Studies have, however, shown that people who suffer from this disorder exhibit a characteristic progression of the fear conditioning, evoking excessive emotion al responses to perceived threats (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012). Appraisal process has also been shown to be diminished in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Appraisal is a psychological process through which people develop capabilities to determine the nature of an event or situation, whether it is pleasant, challenging or threatening. This in turn determines the coping, adapting and survival abilities of the individual. Patients with PSTD lack these abilities and often perceive the world as unsafe, leading to development of deleterious cognitive, emotional and behavioral effects. (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012) Another possible pathophysiologic mechanism involved in posttraumatic stress disorder relates to brain abnormalities in terms of structure and function (Ford, 2009). Various studies using magnetic resonance imaging techniques have demonstrated that the hippocampus volume in patients who suffer from PSTD who were previously exposed to traumatic events is significantly decreased (Fletcher, Creamer Forbes, 2010). These findings have been supported by animal studies, which have shown that continued stress causes hippocampus degeneration and loss of function of apical dendrite nerve cells. It has been hypothesized that this degeneration is as a result of secretion of neurotoxic amino acids by the increased quantities of glucocorticoids. Studies using positron emission tomography have also indicated some functional brain abnormalities in individuals who are affected by PSTD. These studies have suggested elevated regional cerebral circulatory around the limbic and paralimbic regions. These regions play a role in the recognition and processing of emotions and stimuli, thus signifying their possible functions in the regulation of fear conditioning and appraisal (Rosen, 2004). Neurobiological aspects of PSTD Traumatic events directly stimulate the catecholamine system, triggering fight and flight responses such as rates of cardiac activity, blood circulation, metabolism, and alertness. Subsequently, the hypothalamus is stimulated to release corticotropin-releasing hormone, thus activating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis due to the resultant stimulation of the pituitary gland and subsequent release of adrenocorticotropin hormone (Fullerton Ursano, 2005) Furthermore, cortisol is secreted by the adrenal glands, leading to increased stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system. All these responses serve to provide a person with coping and survival abilities when faced with a threatening or dangerous situation. However when the trauma experienced or witnessed is chronic, these fight and flight responses often become counterproductive. Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis finally restores cortisol to normal levels through a negative feedback mechanism. In some instan ces, however, the catecholamine system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis may become poorly modulated, thus impeding normal trauma- and stress-related responses and leading to development of the deleterious effects of PSTD (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006). Various studies have shown that poor modulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and increased amounts of catecholamine generated by trauma adversely impair neuronal development in the brain. This occurs through different mechanisms such as increased degeneration of the nerve cells, impairment of the myelination process, reduction of the quantity and size of dendritic processes, impairment in neural pruning, suppression of the synthesis of nerve cells, and a reduction in the synthesis of neutrophic factor by the brain cells (Schnurr, Friedman, Bernardy, 2002). Exposure to traumatic events has also been shown to cause certain structural changes in the nervous system, including â€Å"reduced corpus callosum size, attenuated development of the left neocortex, hippocampus and amygdala, enhanced electrical irritability in limbic structures, and reduced functional activity of the cerebellar vermis† (Edsall, Karnik Steiner 2005, p. 110). The parts of the brain that become impacted by traumatic events have been shown to exhibit postnatal development for long periods of time, possess increased levels of glucocorticoid receptors and some formation of the nerve cells in the postnatal period. The above damages to the regions of the brain may cause the affected person to develop socialization, attachment, bonding and cognitive problems. The Catecholamine system and Trauma Studies have shown that trauma may affect the catecholamine system, as demonstrated by the increased levels of noreadrenaline and dopamine excreted in urine in people with PSTD. It has also been shown that the concentration of the catecholamine in urine in the patients relates to the length of time one is exposed to the traumatic event, and also to the severity of the disorder cells (Schnurr, Friedman, Bernardy, 2002). The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis and Trauma Investigations on the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in the development of post traumatic stress disorder have indicated that affected children have elevated basal amounts of cortisal, while the affected adults have reduced amounts. The reduced cortisol levels in adults who are suffering from chronic PSTD is thought to be caused by the down-regulation of the anterior pituitary corticotropin-releasing hormone binding sites following the increase in corticotropin-releasing hormone levels, in addition to the increased negative feedback suppression of cortisol amounts by the pituitary gland. The down regulation process is considered as an adaptation response against the chronically increased amounts of cortisol, which may cause neurotoxicity cells (Schnurr, Friedman, Bernardy, 2002). Other studies have hypothesized the decreased baseline cortisal amounts in adults to result from adrenal insufficiency and chronically reduced secretion of cortisal from the adrenal glands. This hypothesis is supported by findings that adults with post traumatic stress disorder show increased adrenocorticotropin hormonal response to corticotropin releasing factor than normal persons (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006). The observations that the baseline cortisal amounts are increased in children who have been exposed to traumatic situations have post traumatic disorder indicates different physiological impacts compared to adults, though similar studies have yielded contrasting results indicating the cortisal levels to be increased. The variations in baseline cortisol amounts among children may be related to factors such as developmental stage of the child during the trauma experience and the period of time that has passed since the trauma occurred (Wolfgang et al., 2012). It is generally suggested that corticotropin releasing hormone and cortisol amounts are increased acutely after exposure to trauma, while developmental effects of the traumatic experience result into reduced amounts of cortisol because of the consistently increased corticotropin releasing hormone and the raised hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis negative feedback mechanism (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006). Functional and structural changes in the brain due to traumatic stress A number of literatures continue to indicate that glucocorticoids have some effects on the hippocampus in individuals who are suffering from post traumatic stress disorder. Most of these studies have demonstrated a reduction of the hippocampus in adult individuals with PSTD. The atrophy of the hippocampus is also reported in various conditions characterized by excessive secretion of glucocorticoid, such as the Cushing syndrome and recurrent major depressive disorder. Further, it has also been demonstrated that the neurotoxic effects of glucocorticoid may be due to chronically increased levels of excitatory amino acids like glutamate (Sapolsky, 1996). Studies using magnetic resonance imaging have shown that adults previously exposed to trauma and who have developed post traumatic stress disorder have significantly decreased hippocampus volumes. Hippocampal atrophy has, however, not been observed in children suffering from this disorder. Instead, these children have, â€Å"smaller intracranial, cerebral, and prefrontal cortex, prefrontal cortical white matter, right temporal lobe volumes, and smaller areas of the corpus callosum† (Edsall, Karnik Steiner 2005, p. 114). These neurobiological observations are possibly caused by reduced cortical hemispheres communication because of memory impairment and dissociative disorders associated with PSTD (Sapolsky, 1996). The differences in brain structure between adults and children suffering from PSTD has been hypothesized to arise from co-occurrence of other disorders such as those associated with drug and alcohol abuse in adults. It is also suggested that stress response tend to gradual, thus the neurobiological changes develop over time. Many brain structures, including the hippocampus are known to continue developing after birth. Studies have established that the hippocampus depicts increased formation of axons, dendrites, synapses and receptors, which become pruned after puberty (Vieweg et al., 2006). Generally, these studies indicate that traumatic experiences during the early years of life cause progressive developmental impacts on the brain, hence implying that the development of post traumatic stress disorder, to some extent, is determined by the stage of neural development of a person (Sapolsky, 1996). It is also suggested that hippocampus atrophy may be a risk factor for the development of PSTD. This is based on comparison studies of twins who have post traumatic stress disorder exposed and those who did not have the disorder with other normal individuals. The study demonstrated that both the twins exposed to trauma and those not exposed had reduced hippocampi volumes as compared to the control group (Sapolsky, 1996). As regards to metabolic alterations in the brain of people with PSTD, various studies using positron emission tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging techniques have been carried mostly in adults. These studies have indicated higher activities in the amygdale and anterior paralimbic areas, and reduced activity around the anterior cingulated and orbitofrontal sections in patients with PSTD (Havard Women’s Health Watch, 2005). Assessment of Trauma and PSTD Assessment of trauma is the initial phase in the diagnosis of post traumatic stress disorder. It involves assessing if a person has experienced a traumatic situation, and identifying the situations that the person has had exposure to. The event or situation has to be evaluated whether it is life threatening. This is a significant step since symptoms of the disorder like re-experiencing, avoidance, numbing, arousal, and concentration difficulties need to be examined against particular events. PSTD is assessed through a cluster of three symptoms including re-experiencing, avoidance and arousal. Appearance of the symptoms should be determined, whether they started immediately following exposure to the trauma and whether the symptoms are progressively increasing (Robertson, Humphreys Ray, 2004). Diagnosis of PSTD Diagnosis of post traumatic stress disorder is based on certain set of criteria, which are six in number. The first criterion is the demonstration of the existence of a stressor. An individual must have been exposed to, experienced or threatened with a situation where death or physical harm was eminent or real. The second criterion is the existence of re-experiencing symptoms, whereby the affected individual persistently perceives imaginary threats witnessed or experienced before. This mostly occurs as flashbacks and the affected individual feels and behaves as if the trauma is repeating. Re-experiencing may also come in form of distressing memories and nightmares, particularly when the person faced with situations related to the trauma. In some cases, the patients may present with physiological or psychological stress reactions such as full-blown panic attacks. The third criterion for diagnosis is the existence of avoidance and numbing symptoms (Robertson, Humphreys Ray, 2004). Individuals presenting with this disorder often try to escape trauma-related thoughts and actions and regularly present with reduced capabilities to engage in pleasure activities, difficulty in recalling some dimensions of the trauma, withdrawal from social activities, and detachment. The forth criterion includes observation of symptoms related to hyperarousal and hypervigilance. In this criterion, persons affected by post traumatic stress disorder may exhibit features such as lack of concentration, irritability, and disturbed sleep patterns. The fifth criterion is the demonstration that re-experiencing symptoms, avoidance of actions and thoughts related to trauma, withdrawal, and irritability, and lack of concentration, disturbed sleep patterns, and irritability symptoms have occurred persistently for more than one month. The last criterion is the demonstration that the combined symptoms impairs with the functional and social abilities of the affected individual, coupled with significant distress. Under this criterion, the existence of PSTD is ruled out if the patient presents with mild symptoms or when the person exhibits competent functional abilities (Wolfgang et al., 2012). Treatment of PSTD The major treatment intervention measures for patients who have post traumatic stress disorder are, â€Å"cognitive behavioral therapy, pharmacotherapy and individual and group dynamic therapy† (Wolfgang et al. 2012, p. 72). Cognitive-behavioral Therapy This is the most effective form of treatment currently available for PSTD. The main approaches to cognitive-behavioral therapy involve exposure therapy and anxiety management interventions. Exposure therapies mostly focus on the elimination of the strong effects caused by fear conditioning in people suffering from post traumatic stress disorder. These therapeutic approaches are based on the recognition that consistent exposure to perceived threats helps in decreasing the victim’s fear response to stimuli associated with trauma. Further, exposure therapy also helps in lessening the victim’s sympathetic nervous system and adrenergic hyperactivity triggered by trauma related stimuli (Wolfgang et al., 2012). Anxiety management interventions are usually geared towards equipping the patient with skills that can help in decreasing anxiety. These strategies, therefore, involve training the patient on areas like relaxation, social skills, stress management, and cognitive restructuring among others. Cognitive restructuring is the most preferred training since it helps patients to be able to correct the impaired appraisal mechanisms, thus lessening their tendency to perceive threats from unwarranted situations. Cognitive-behavioral therapy can be provided on individual basis or in a group. In group psychotherapy, the patients are given trainings through psychoeducation, exposure and cognitive processing (Vieweg et al., 2006). Pharmacotherapy Based on the identified neurobiological abnormalities that accompany post traumatic stress disorder, pharmacotherapeutic interventions can help in the treatment of many associated symptoms such as anxiety, depression and insomnia. Pharmacotherapy is often essential before induction of the patient to other therapeutic approaches like cognitive-behavioral therapy and psychodynamic therapy (Gibson, 2012). Many studies on the efficacy of antidepressants such as imipramine and fluoxetine have generated mixed results, often indicating that patients having severe and chronic PSTD show refractory responses towards these medications. Clinical trials on the effectiveness of anti-adrenergic drugs like propranolol and clonidine also yield promising results, indicating the possible benefits in treating this disorder (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012). Dynamic psychotherapy This form of therapy involves encouraging the patient to make free association of ideas and feelings, while allowing the psychotherapist to make interpretations of the implications of the associations. The psychotherapist also provides recommendations depending on the comprehension of the situations and the perceived causes of the symptoms. The main objective of this form of therapy is to unravel the exact nature of the patient’s psyche so as to help in managing the psychic tension (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012).This therapy approach, therefore, relies on the establishment of an interpersonal relationship between the patient and the psychotherapist. It can be applied in various contexts such as in individual psychotherapy, group psychotherapy, and family therapy among other areas. In dealing with PSTD patients, the dynamic psychotherapy approach mostly targets the creation of a trustworthy and safe environment so as to enable the patient reveal the hidden traumatic experiences. Once the traumatic content has been obtained, focus shifts to analysis of the trauma in detail and examinations of the re-experiences together with the avoidance symptoms. Patients are finally guided to disengage from the perceived threat and make appropriate reconnections in their social life (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012). Recommendations Because of the increased rates of traumatic experiences in the world nowadays, prevalence of PSTD is anticipated to increase with time. It is imperative that more research be carried out to develop appropriate prevention and early intervention measures to curb the disorder (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006). These measures should be based on the already established risk factors for the disorder and should mainly target individuals exhibiting acute stress symptoms so that early cognitive-behavioral interventions are given. It is also important that further research be carried out on the neurobiological aspect of posttraumatic stress disorder, particularly in children (Rosen, 2004). These studies will provide more information regarding functional and structural alterations in the brain associated with this disorder to enable designing of appropriate diagnosis tools. Conclusion Post traumatic stress disorder is an anxiety disorder presumed to be caused by traumatic experiences. However, many individuals exposed to traumatic events do not develop the disorder. In addition, the prevalence of the disorder in people who have been traumatized is low, thus indicating the existence of other certain risk factors that predispose some individuals to develop the disorder. Intensive studies have helped in creating more understanding of the function of the risk factors in the development of the disorder, and subsequent development of treatment approaches. Despite various interventions such as CBT and pharmacotherapy aiding in management of PSTD, there is need to conduct more studies to establish measures that can be used as early interventions and proper diagnostic tools for PSTD. References Edsall, S., Karnik, N. Steiner, H. (2005). â€Å"Childhood trauma.† In, Clinical child psychiatry, 2nd ed, Eds. Klykylo, W. and Kay, J. London: John Wiley sons. Fletcher, K. (1996). Childhood posttraumatic stress disorder. New York, NY: Guildford Publications Inc. Fletcher, S., Creamer, M. Forbes, D. (2010). Preventing post traumatic stress disorder: Are drugs the answer? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 44, 1064-1071. Ford, J. D. (2009). Post traumatic stress disorder: Science and practice. New York, NY: Academic Press. Fullerton, C. S. Ursano, R. J. 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